Rawls Principles Of Justice Philosophy Essay

Rawls Principles Of Justice Philosophy Essay What is justice. Merriam-Webster defines justice as the quality of being just, impartial, or fair; the principle or ideal of just dealing or right action; conformity to this principle or ideal. For our purposes, justice is also seen as a concept that is balanced between law and morality. John Rawls states that justice is the first virtue of social institutions. He states that justice is best understood by a grasp of the principles of justice which are expected to represent the moral basis political government. These principles indicate that humankind needs liberty and freedom to the extent that they do not harm others. He believes, correctly I agree, that justice is significant to human development and prosperity. Rawls states that the challenge of justice is to ensure a just distribution of primary goods that include powers and opportunities, rights and liberties, means of self-respect, income and wealth among others. He disputed the earlier predominant common source of injustice, the utilitarianism theory (which states that justice is best defined by that which provides the greatest good for the greatest number of people). The theory of utilitarianism completely ignores the moral worth of an individual. This theory does not take into consideration the minority aspect of the population. Rawls writes about one such example of this mistreatment of the minority in relation to how the Jewish people were treated by the Nazis in Germany. In respect to the mistreatment of minorities, Rawls writes that you cannot reimburse for the sufferings of the distressed by enhancing the hoys of the successful. Fairness, according to him, occurs when the society makes sure that every individual is treated equall y before the law and given a chance to succeed in a socially-moderated life. He developed a concept that he deemed the original position, which gives people a chance to decide on the principles of justice from a veil of ignorance. This original position is a hypothetical situation where no one has any advantage over another. I find the veil of ignorance very interesting. Behind this veil, all individuals are specified as rational, free and morally equal beings in society. They do not know anything of themselves, their natural abilities, or their set position in the society in which they live. They have no idea of their sex, race, nationality, or individual tastes. Would they choose differently if they werent aware of these things? Would their society be less judgmental? I firmly believe so. I believe they would make choices about their lives that would adopt a strategy that would maximize the prospects of the not-so-well off, and make society a better balanced society. According to Rawls, the people in the original position, behind said veil of ignorance, wou ld adopt principles that would monitor the assignment of rights and duties and regulating the distribution of social and economic advantages in the society. His difference principle allows inequalities in the distribution of goods when the states inequalities benefit the least well off members of the society. However, Michael Sandel, noted author of Justice: Whats the Right Thing to Do?, would state that the idea of the veil of ignorance is unachievable. He argues that we are entangled with our communities, our pasts, and our sense of the possible future. If we are ashamed of what our country does, or proud of it, we are tacitly admitting that we are claimed by moral ties that we have not chosen and implicated in the narratives that shape our identity as moral agents. Sandel also believes the just society can be better achieved through a more emotional, patriotic and even religious appeal, rather than through Rawlss abstract liberalism. Sandel thinks that Rawlss liberal theory of justice fails because the neutrality of values associated with it begins with the false assumption that citizens are unencumbered selves totally unbound by any history, civic loyalties, sociopolitical circumstances, aims and attachments. We are all undeniably entwined with our communities. Other than Sandel, another critic of Rawlss position is Susan Moller Okin, author of, Reason and Feeling in Thinking About Justice. One would think that Rawlss theory would support feminist thinkers who seek to overturn the injustices suffered by women. The original position being supposedly blind to gender and tradition, and so, it seems, are the principles of justice Rawls derives. However, Susan Okin has several arguments against Rawlss theories, or in favor of adjustments to his theories. One of her first problems is that Rawlss theory is limited to public justice the deliberators are meant to be heads of families not necessarily gendered but entails that justice does not apply within families. Thus sacrifices for domestic arrangements such as childbearing, childcare, and housework, traditionally made by women, are simply not considered. He simply assumes families are just institutions, which in my opinion is far from true. Rawls also stresses the role of proper moral developm ent, which he believes is to take place within families. Upbringing must be both loving and just. However, how can a proper upbringing take place if the women of the family are not placed on equal foundations with the men? Rawls underplays the role of emotion in rational decision-making. This is not to say that only women use emotions to make decisions, but that the idea that anybody could make any decision free from emotional influences is a characteristically male attribute. Nevertheless, Okin thinks that in the right hands, Rawlss original position, which is blind to gender and tradition, has the potential to provide a framework for critique of systems which are gender-biased. Its just that Rawls fails to do this. The general conception of this principle is that all primary goods, such as liberty and opportunity, self-respect, incomes, and wealth, are supposed to be distributed equally unless an unequal distribution of any or all of these primary goods are to the advantage of the least favored. The good is the satisfaction of rational desire thus making the goods different, but all people having a right to said goods. All individuals have equal right to the most general of basic liberties. Economic and social inequalities are to be set in a way that they are both rationally projected to be everyones advantage, and to be attached to positions that are open to all people in society. Rawls writes about three general principles of justice. The first said principle is the principle of greatest equal liberty. This principle states that each person has an equal right to the most basic liberty. It determines the basic rights that should be retained such as, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the political liberties to vote, run for office, own property, and to have freedom of speech. These have to be protected to guarantee the development and prosperity of others. The second of Rawlss principles is the principle of fair equality of wealth and opportunity. According to this principle, everyone should have the same opportunities to make wealth, work, or govern in a public office. The only difference being the knowledge and skills of the individual. He states that it is in everyones advantage if positions of authority are accessible for any person to lead the community. The third principle of Rawls indicates that any social and economic inequalities should be arranged so that they are to th e greatest benefit to the least advantaged individuals in society. It indicates that for any effective change to be considered as an improvement, it should affect the least privileged. This principle is often referred to as the difference principle. Another critic of Rawls is Robert Nozick, author of Anarchy, The State and Utopia, which was primarily written to refute the theories of John Rawls. Specifically, Nozick takes issue with Rawls conception of distributive justice as it pertains to economic inequalities. Rawls wrote that economic inequalities should only be permitted if they are to the benefit of society, and especially if they are to the benefit of its least advantaged members; this has come to be known as the difference principle. Nozick believed that no one had any business permitting economic inequalities at all. To Nozick, as long as economic inequalities arise from voluntary exchange, they cannot be unjust. Rawls saw the importance of liberty, but he also saw the tragedy of inequality, particularly as it pertains to extreme poverty. To Rawls, it is unconscionable that some should be born into a life of misery and poverty while others enjoy great wealth without lifting a finger. To Nozick, the unconscionable thing is that anyone should feel the justified in appropriating property that is rightly entitled to someone else. I believe that while Rawlss theory of justice is admirable, it does have some flaws and weaknesses. Rawlss theory is not a formula for deciding what is right and wrong, but a framework for proposing principles of justice. No one can really know what a specific set of people would actually decide if they didnt know what sort of people they would be, what sort of lives and what appetite for risk they would have. But that does not mean the thought experiment cannot be used as a test. Would people who knew they could turn out to be Jewish, in a context of historic embedded anti-Semitism, agree to principles which allowed public bodies to impose anti-Jewish quotas, purportedly as a way to avoiding the possible consequences of anti-Semitism? Unlikely.

Issues Caused by Prison Overcrowding

Issues Caused by Prison Overcrowding Overcrowding: One of the important goals in prison system is that it should guarantee the public safety, prison inmates and staff. (Criminal justice and behavior) holding more prisoners than it is intended to accommodate, then the level of overcrowding in different continents andregions can be shown in terms of the occupancy rate*/the number of prisoners as apercentage of the official capacity of the system  (prison health care and the extent of prison overcrowding) In North and Central America, this is true of nine of the 12 countries on which information is available, as it is of 13 out of 14 Caribbean countries and 12 of the 13 countries in South America.(prison health care and the extent of prison overcrowding) Overall, the prison systems of 109 of the 158 countries on which information is available*/69%*/hold more prisoners than they are intended to accommodate. Over the 6 years since the first edition of the World Prison Population List appeared, the latest information available shows that prison populations have risen in 71% of these countries*/in 62% of countries in Africa, 74% in the Americas, 87% in Asia, 67% inEurope and 69% in Oceania Crowding Can be measure in the floor space per prisoner, prisoner per living unit and institutional population relative to state capacity According to BOP, the population increasing in prison are contribute to the longer sentencing over times for inmates From the GAO, it claimsthatthe population of BOP will increase more than the system Capacity such as they predict thatit will be increasing the additional 15 percent of inmates’ population in the BOP. The number of females inmates housed in bop institution increased 7 percent and the number of the males inmates housed in bop institution increased 10 percent. 48 percent for sentencing drug The problem of overcrowding: Overcrowding can be toxic for the both of the prisoners and staff Lack of privacy, lost to use of gyms and recreation, noise, unsanitary ,there are long lines for the toilet ,poor condition in the prison situation The United Nations ‘‘Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners’’ state that: ‘‘Allaccommodation for the use of prisoners and in particular all sleeping accommodation shallmeet all requirements of health, due regard being paid to climatic conditions andparticularly to cubic content of air, minimum floor space, lighting, heating and ventilation’’(prison health care and the extent of prison overcrowding) It is equally well recognized that, by contributing to health problems in prison, overcrowding is also contributing to health problems in the community, since the vastmajority of prisoners will return to the community in due course, accompanied by anydisease that is then afflicting them Prisoners: Mental health When overcrowding exceeds this figure, the risk to the health of prisoners is obviously greater still. In 67 of the 158 countries on which information is available, the occupancy rate exceeds 120%, including more than 70% of the prison systems in Africa, the Caribbean and South America, and at least 60% of those in Asia and Central America. Indeed, in almost a quarter of the prison systems (22%) The occupancy rate exceeds 150%, and in 15 countries (almost 10%) it exceeds 200%,meaning that more than two prisoners are occupying space intended for one. From the representation of World Health Organization: ‘‘Overcrowding is an obvious cause or contributory factor to many of the health problems inprison, most notably communicable diseases and mental health, including the use ofpsychoactive substances’’( prison health care and the extent of prison overcrowding) Suicide (for the long-term)( which level of security) Self-harm Infraction and stressful. (Prison Crowing A psychological perspective) Human rights and the prison system should have reasonability to keep inmates mental and physical health( Overcrowding in Prisons A Health Risk in Need of (Re)consideration) Poor prison life associate with the mental health such as self-harm, suicide and violent behavior and all of have major implication can affect the inmates and staff. (Criminal justice and behavior) In the long term, this is cause of the high reoffending rates as the mental health, misconduct behavior are associated with the increasing the risk of recidivism (Criminal justice and behavior) (Criminal justice and behavior) Also, the research finds that the linked the overcrowding in prison with increasing the psychological problem such as suicide, rates of violence hypertension and other medical conditioning. The rehabilitation program have been dismantled as the program have never work because the program are underfund and the high unemployment rates make the inmate post-release adjustment are more difficulty (trauma)à ¯Ã†â€™Ã‚   CAN ARGUE Gaes (1992) found that the stress of crowding and the straggle for resource, space and create the nervous atmosphere can increase the chance of suicide and other formed violence. People always argue that rehabilitation and the mental care programmer can addressthe problem of suicide. However, there are limited setting and space to provide the rehabilitation program for inmates in the overcrowding prison. (HUYEN) Stress->the data provide strong for the conclusion that dormitory crowding is the stressor and is detrimental to health. The relationship of housing of the relationship of autonomic nervous system responses to crowding and by examination of urine chemistry correlates of adrenal catecholamine.P45 There is another importance source of information about health-related problem that can illuminate the extent to which crowded prison conditions are associated with physical and mental pathology-the data on serious health-related incidents such as natural deaths and suicide from the prison archives. P46 The data show that there are the illness of headaches, sleeplessness and blood pressure in the short-term.P46 Crowding could produce stress and that prolonged stress could lead to serious physical and psychological consequence. P46 Evaluating the relationship pf crowding – assessing impact of changes in population over times, assessing difference between large and small institutions within particular prison system. Even when the institutions are equally crowded , thebook find that regarding crowding assume that because of greater socialidentity , the large institutions would yield relatively greater stress and consequently a greater incidence of health-related problems as the increase population within a prison would be reinteraction within the living quarters and or in common use areas.P46 Although the stress can have a direct effect on physical health, it may also have dramatic effects on mental health. ] The disciplinary infraction-> the stress related population pressure in the high density institutions may result in a variety of pathological consequence. If population level is important, the large institutions would be associated with more population-related stress than the small one. In the large institution, housing may not be more crowded, but external activity areas may be more densely populated In the criminal justice behavior, it found that there are strong relationship between the institution infraction and the misconduct behavior such as aggression, impulsiveness and the risk of institution. Also. The large of population in the high security housing, it will be high rates of infraction with the gang activities. Physical health Blood pressure Finding the single cell in us now D, Atri (1975) found that the dormitorities were associated with the elevated blood pressure compare with the single cell housing(P45) In the high population years compared with the low population years, the death rates, it should include those from thediseases of the circulatory system were significantly higher for those over 45years of the age. (ARG) The book analyses indicated that deaths from the natural cause for inmates older than 50years of age increased much more rapidly than the population changes. THE population increased slightly be over 90percent, while the death rates increased by over 200percent P49 Misconduct behavior—public safety From the GAO report, it can find that overcrowding may cause to increase the misconduct behavior with prisoner and it should be more competition of education and training. (The problem of overcrowding) Recidivists, but no reconviction rates The overcrowding will continue increase as the reform policy such as street safety Post release (Overcrowding in Prisons A Health Risk in Need of (Re) consideration) Costs The budget of the mental service Meaningful programmes Increasing the population of prison may cause the overcrowding and affect the relationship between the staff and inmates, prison safety, the condition of confinement and themeaningful programmer for prison. (Criminal justice and behavior) On the other hand, overcrowding can reduce the meaningful work chance to inmates. There are providing some programmer to relate in job operating and maintaining for inmate to participate in such as federal prison industries. Within the overcrowding, it is difficult to arrange for inmates to working in the federal prison industries factory. At the end, the inmates release the jail and they are difficult to find the job and committing crime (like a cycle) (R42937) The GAO reported that there are some problem of overcrowding to be highlight and how this problem to might contribute to inmate misconduct and caused in this facilities. In the report, it showed that the growing of population in prison, the inmates should convert common areas (share to common area) such as television room, temporary house space and they inmates with higher propensity for violence spending more times with other inmates and due to the overcrowding in prison, the inmates may experience crowded bathroom facilities, reduce the shower times and waste of time for services, shorten in meal times and limited recreational activities. On the other hand, the increasing number of inmates in bop facilities will decrease the availability of the programmer as there are longer waiting lists for rehabilitative programmer such as education, vocation training, and substance drug treatment. In fact, the reduction in rehabilitative programmer can manage the prison population. In the BOP, if the inmates complete successfully substance drug treatment, they have up to one year taken off their sentence. However, the longer waiting lists for the substance drug treatment programmer, the limited ability of BOP to allow the inmates earning the maximum reduction in inmate’s sentencing. (R42937) Human rights (linked with the mental Health and crowding conditioning) The public and commercial services union à ¯Ã†â€™Ã‚   increase the deaths in custody and to basic standard of human dignity ( UNION PROTEST AGAIN PRSION OVERCROWDING) Prison safety The increasing of population in the prison may lead to overcrowding and cause of the prison safety and the relationship between the staff and inmates. One of importance of goal in the prison system is that it should protect the safety of public, inmates and staff in the prison. However the poor environment conditions and adjustment in the prison will link with the mental health such as suicide and self harm for the inmates and the misconduct behavior. all of the behavior will affect the safety of inmates and staff. (Criminal justice behavior) the early identification of inmates in the overcrowding conditions is the risk for the violence behavior and the health (Criminal justice behavior) Staff: For the staff, it can increase the staff pressure and affect their ability to full access theprisoner’s need and provide the quality care and treatment.( UNION PROTEST AGAIN PRSION OVERCROWDING) Arg: Although the private prisons operate (it can reduce the cost of overcrowding in public prison), there is the questionable of privatization deliver lower costs and whether services provided by private prison comparable to services provided by public prison. Whateverthe public prison or private prison operate, the age of prisoner, the economic scale and the prisoner’s security level are the most important factor of daily per diem cost to determine (R42937) Others: Model Early identification of prison -> security level (Criminal justice and behavior) (Lack of the now) In the mid -1980s, the inmate population under the Bureau of Prison has increase from25000 to over 219000 inmates in the 2013. The growth of inmate’s population in the prison system is contributed to policy change in the previous decades such as the mandatory minimum sentences. In the mandatory minimum sentencing, there are many people convicted of states crimes to sentence in the prison for the long-term imprisonment. At that time, theprison populations climbed almost continuously and hold more inmates to the federal prison system in the United States. From the World Prison Population, it showed that there are 74 percent in American has risen over the six years. (Prison health).However, the prison system capacity cannot afford the large inmate’s population and lead to overcrowding. Overcrowding refers the number of inmates actually holding in the federal prison system is higher than the prison system’s capacity and accommodation prison; overcrowding is not only just measure in the primary living environment (external density) such as the floor space prisoner, prisoner, per living unit and institutional population relative to state capacity, but also it can also measure the subjective experience of density-related discomfort of inmates in the prison.When people talk about the pressure problem in the prison system, it should be focus on how the problem can affect the prison system first. In the prison system, the importance goals are that it should guarantee the public safety, prison inmates and staff; rehabilitation for prisoner to come back the society after they released; punishment for the criminal to reduce the future crimes. In fact, there are many importance problems in the prison system, but overcrowding has bought the serious problem to prison system such as health-related problems for staff and inmates, reconviction rates, costing in the prison system.etc; therefore, the most pressing problem in prison system is the overcrowding. ARG According to  BOP officials, without space for disciplinary segregation, they are limited  in how they can address inmate misconduct. Officials further stated that  when a facility has no Special Housing Unit space available, the regional  office may move the inmate to a Special Housing Unit in another facility of  a different security level—a practice referred to as trans-segregation. Alternatively, headquarters officials said that disciplinary hearing officers  may dispense shorter time in segregation or use other sanctions or a  combination of nonsegregation sanctions. As a result, the officials said  that the imposed sanctions may not be as much of a deterrent with the  inmates, which affects the security and safety of inmates and staff. COUET BOP officials did not discount an incident happening at a  low security facility because of the high gang presence in these facilities. They said that although the criminal histories of low security inmates  suggest that they are not a â€Å"high risk† for violence, these inmates may still  be a high risk for problems because of frustrations resulting from crowded  conditions. Second, BOP officials were also concerned that the federal 25 percent double bunking and 75 percent single bunking of cells  within high security facilities, 50 percent double bunking and 50 percent single bunking of cells  within medium security facilities, and 100 percent From fiscal years 2006 through 2011, the percentage crowding in male  medium security facilities increased from 37 percent to 51 percent and  from 53 percent to 55 percent in high security level facilities  BOP’s high security population was about 21,000 in December 2011—or  about 7,000 more than its rated capacity—resulting in 97 percent double  bunking and a 55 percentage crowding. According to BOP, BOP’s ability to increase rated capacity is directly  affected by funding appropriated for new prison construction and to  support contracts with private prison providers for additional inmate bed  space. In fiscal year 2005, the Office of Management and Budget (OMB)  placed a moratorium on all new BOP prison construction. To address  BOP’s bed space needs, OMB focused on contracting with private  Page 16 GAO-12-743 Federal Prison Crowding  prisons. P38 BOP’s 2020 long-range capacity plan assumes continued growth in the  federal prison population from fiscal years 2011 through 2020, with about  15 percent growth in the number of inmates BOP will house.38 To address  some of this growth, BOP expects to activate five newly constructed  prisons by 2014, adding about 6,720 beds.39 In addition, BOP is  budgeting for additional contracted bed space—1,000 beds in 2013 and  1,500 the next year, but the addition of these contracted beds is subject  to future appropriations. Despite its plans to add capacity through 2014,  given the expected inmate population growth, BOP projects crowding will  increase from the current rate of 39 percent to 44 percent by 2015.  Figure 3 P53

Impact of Identity Theft in E-Commerce

Impact of Identity Theft in E-Commerce ABSTRACT In the world of today, where time is money and information is a corporate asset, protection of data confidentiality and integrity has become critical. Today, companies are focusing much more on how to secure their businesses from identity fraud, which has emerged as the modern day menace. As I found research on identity theft is rather limited. This research will provide more knowledge of the subject. The aim of this research therefore was to find and assess the impact and the level of identity theft in e-commerce. This was achieved by using analytic induction from the existing research literature and analysis of feed back from the various business executives, industry specialists and company clients through a questionnaire. After introducing identity theft and its impact on the corporate sector in detail, in the first two chapters with the data protection laws; it discusses their merits, demerits, controls and loopholes, the third chapter of this study delves into the methods and techniques used to prevent identity theft, it discusses in detail their efficacy, efficiency, implications and limitations while the last chapter is a case study of an organization where , existing data has been collected from various sources and has been critically analyzed and reviewed. A quantitative method approach has been employed in carrying out this research, besides carrying out a case study of an organization Moreover, aim to decrease the risk and effects of identity theft in e-commerce possible best practice techniques were identified through this research which was achieved through a study of existing literature which results the formation of a policy document. This policy document was also evaluated by industry experts. INTRODUCTION Like Mcleod and Scheel (2001) says, â€Å"e-business creates higher customer satisfaction, by providing quicker service, less effort to buy a product or service, and less business cost compared to a business run without the use of information technology (IT)†. Internet is also called worldwide network of computers. It provides excellent opportunities for an organization to do their business online. To get more customers and to increase the publics awareness of the business, it is very important to represent themselves on the Internet and their products, resulting in increased sales volume and higher profits. Security implications hold back the business. Nowadays, Credit card companies, banks and software companies work together to produce a broad standard to do safe online business. Whereas on the other hand System Hackers are trying to get as much information as possible, which they can easily sell in the black market. Some of the staff in companies also busy in selling their customers details in the same black market. Specific guidelines should be followed by companies to develop a safe and successful appearance in the online business. Some critics like Professor Richard Walton CB, (2005) however quarrel, The rise of the Internet and other modern technologies has brought about a fundamental change in commercial life. He further says that thieves have been stealing wallets and credit cards for a long time, but the growth of online buying and on-line banking has made Identify Theft the fastest growing white-collar crime in the U.K. and America, Its a big problem, and it can happen to anyone. On the other hand, some people are disagreed that the major cause of Identity theft is internet. As per Thomas C. Greene (2005) he said, that The vast majority of incidents can be traced to (what he calls) skimming, or dumpster diving, he goes further to say that plain stupidity among those who own our personal data are also contributive. Only a small fraction of such incidences result from on line transactions. I found majority of research is on the topic of identity theft, which usually consists of some variations in the phrase identity theft is the fastest growing crime in the United kingdom or it begins with a quaint anecdote about the tens of thousands of identity theft victims that emerge each year. According to a report published in the American angle, Anne P.Minz (2002) which says that the consumer sentinel network of agencies gathering data on e-commerce fraud, reports that in 2001 alone, there were 204,000 complaints, compared to 138,900 reported in 2000. It is noticeable that 47% increase demonstrates the growing nature of the problem. Figures such as the ones noted above are apparently disconcerting, in other to glean possible remedies which in turn demands for additional research on this issue. There are so many occasioning of identity theft and different ways this may be consummate. The overheads and wounded are considerable to financial institutions as well as individuals, but the overheads are often difficult to reveal or enumerate, mainly for individual punter sufferers. If an individual is auspicious enough to avoid financial responsibility for the theft, in so many ways they still endure losses in different ways, which may not be substantial; most of the time the affecting damage is very heavy that some sufferers commend suicide while so many others hunt for therapeutic or psychiatric assistance. In an attempt to recover from the theft or loss, sufferer may end up costs more money and time. These two must not be perplexed as theft resembles fraud in that and both engagedin some form of unlawful takings, but fraud requires an extra component of false pretenses formed to persuade a sufferer to turn over wealth, property or other services. Theft, by difference, needs only the illegal captivating of anothers possessions withthe aim to enduringly divest the other of the possessions. Harsh punishment is for fraud because of more planning is involved in that than does the theft. However, for the use of this study we are going to focus on identity theft in e-commerce in accessing the effect on online business in UK. Definition of Identity Definition of Theft â€Å"Theft† can be defined as per English Law act 1968 section (1). Subsection (1), that a person is guilty of theft if he is deceitfully appropriates property belongs to another with the purpose of enduringly miserly the additional of it; and that steal and theft shall be construed consequently. It is irrelevant whether the appropriation is made with a view to expand, or is made for the thiefs own benefit. As per encyclopedia dictionary 2007, Sometimes theft is used synonymously with larceny as a term; however, we can say that, it is actually a broader term, encircling many forms of dishonestly taking of property, including cheating, double-crossing and false pretenses. Some states categorize all these offenses under a single statutory crime of theft. Property belonging to another is taken without that persons consent will be assumed as theft, where Theft could be regarded as criminal act. Sense of Identity Theft In the Identity theft and assumption prevention Act of 1998 the term identity theft was first codified, where the act makes it as a federal crime when someone deliberately uses or transfers, without legal permission, a means of identification of another person with the aim to commit, or to aid or support, any unlawful activity that constitutes a breach of federal law, or that constitutes a offense under any applicable state or local law. In addition, the act defines it as a means of identification as any name or number that may be used, alone, or in combination with any other information, to identify a specific person. Identifying information is noted to be, surrounded by other things, passport number, a name, date of birth, drivers license or national insurance number (NI), access device or telecommunication identifying information. Identity theft may be broadly defined as the unlawful acquirement or the use of any aspect of an individuals personal information for committing some form of criminal activity (Hoar, 2001; LoPucki, 201; Slosarik 2002). This definition is proposed to cover any type of crime that falsely uses a victims name, home address, bank account, credit / debit card number, national insurance number, date of birth, etc. (Federal trade commission, 2004) Formal Definition of Identity Theft Although the act of simply embezzlement ones private information is an offense, the key factor to be notable here is that this information is then used to declare to be someone else. In other words we can say when someone else uses your identity as his own with the ultimate ambition for fiscal, material, and monetary gain. The Internet, the evolution of e-commerce, online shopping, and wireless capability, the explanation of identity theft can be further extended to comprise such things as the hacking into the customer databases of large organizations; stealing of usernames and passwords; the theft and hacking of network login sessions; and onwards. The development of e-commerce and particularly Wireless has compounded the problem of identity theft. Basically, it can happen worst yet to anyone, anywhere and at anytime, at variable edges in the way that information can easily be stolen. For example, Identity theft can occur by an individual simply rummaging through the trash cans at the local dumpster (the technically it is well-known as â€Å"Dumpster Diving†, and will be discussed later). Identity theft can also happen at your workplace, particularly if you do most of your work through telecommuting over a wireless link. Suppose yourself sitting in a cafà © at the train station, and while you are waiting for your train. Your laptop computer is connected to the â€Å"Hot Spot† or wireless link at the cafà ©, and you access your confidential customer data as well as an important work e-mail, but how do you know if the wireless link is for authentic? For example, there could be someone sitting next to you, and this person could have set up a fake wireless access point, and you unintentionally logged into that, thinking that you have really linked to a legitimate, safe and encrypted wireless link. Now, you can see that, this person has all the right to use your customer information, usernames and passwords as a result of that fake link, or â€Å"rogue† Wireless access link, And then you are completely unaware to all of this (this situation is well-known as â€Å"The Evil Twins†). Nowadays, you can see every where there is always a case of theft of identity going on almost every day. First, it was simply stealing a Bank Account Number or 16 digits credit card numbers, but now this crime is going on a large scale, where it affects millions of people all at once. Some peoples working in companies where they are steeling and selling customers full details under the table. As according to the BBC world report (March-2008) on local TV news, that HSBC Bank lost one data disk (compact disk) of their customer details. As we move more towards a wireless and mobile world, people who launch identity theft attacks are becoming much more stylish in the manner in which these attacks are launched. We are also seeing a trend today where large corporations are becoming very complacent in protecting their customer databases from these attacks. There are also trends going on where small, Wireless devices with huge capacity are being used in identity theft crime, and private information is even sold during auctioning processes over the internet. Definition of the term â€Å"Electronic Commerce†: â€Å"Electronic Commerce refers generally to all forms of commercial transactions involving both organizations and individuals, that are based upon the electronic processing and transmission of data, including text, sound and visual images† (OECD, 1997), â€Å"Electronic commerce is about doing business electronically. It is based on the electronic processing and transmission of data, including text, sound and video. It encompasses many diverse activities including electronic trading of goods and services, online delivery of digital content, electronic fund transfers, electronic share trading, electronic bills of lading, commercial auctions, collaborative design and engineering, online products (e.g. consumer goods, specialized medical equipment) and services (e.g. information services, financial and legal services); traditional activities (e.g. healthcare, education) and new activities (e.g. virtual malls).† (EC document, 1997) â€Å"Electronic commerce is the carrying out of business activities that lead to an exchange of value across telecommunication networks† (EITO, 1997) â€Å"E-commerce involves business transactions conducted through computer networks. The e-business literature deals with the technical facilities needed to run a business smoothly.†(Laudon and Laudon, 2000) â€Å"E-business creates higher customer satisfaction, by providing quicker service, less effort to buy a product or service, and less business cost compared to a business run without the use of information technology (IT)† (McLeod and Schell, 2001). Both of these approaches to e-business point to changes in the entire vision of a classical understanding of business. Service industrys challenges Companies are using electronic funds transfer (EFT) for their customers as the fast and secure way of transactions, at present; there are two most excellent ways to handle money online: personal checks and credit cards, there are other fast and secure methods to exchange funds online. Electronic funds transfer (EFT) is another name for online money exchange. Here, the exchange of digital money is involved between buyers and sellers. In the front customer authorization is made over the Internet where Banks handles the transactions behind. To ensure higher level of security specialized authentication systems should be adopted. IDs and passwords are one of the most fashionable methods of data security are in use to access a server or Internet site, but these are often poor. To address this problem, Axent Technologies has developed hardware and software solution called Defender that creates unique, one-time passwords that cannot be guessed, shared, or cracked (Venetis, 1999). â€Å"The system incorporates software on the users computer that communicates with the Defender Security Server on the other end. When the user connects with the server, a software token is activated that automatically establishes a dialogue with the server. A new password is generated during each session, removing any possibility that the user will forget to change his/her password on a regular basis† (Venetis, 1999). This study aims not only to evaluate benefits of adopting secure solution to identity-theft, but also to see that what best practices should be adopted by the Companies, which add value to their online business. Through in-depth research, I will be able to examine why customers switch to new online companies for their shopping. I will see techniques other companys uses to give confidence to their customers to retain them. Although there is a very limited research available on prevention of identity theft in e-business, but my aim is to study how I can contribute from the experiences of other companys perspective. By using quantitative method approach, I will try to test the current literature available on the subject matter. The study is based upon research conducted throughout the report from a variety of sources. The scope of the study is the assessment of tools, technologies and architectures that may involve in identify theft in e-commerce. As the scope of â€Å"Identity theft in e-commerce† is a diversified, so I have limited my research to online fraud detection and prevention methods. Why this research? The Literature provides insights into factors underlying the impacts of identity theft on e-business and failure results: customers lack of confidence, inappropriate variety of technologies structures, lack of ability to control and secure online businesses, lack of adoptable techniques and processes, but lack of study on how to secure online business. Research Questions To concentrate the research primary and secondary questions have been devised to establish a central path to guide the research. PRQ:What technologies are currently in place to combat fraud and how do they work? SRQ:Looking at previous fraud prevention techniques, have new technologies actually prevented and deterred fraud from the mainstream areas? The past study on identity theft in e-commerce was not enough to solve the problems. As the cyber crime growing rapidly, it is very difficult to secure online business. The purpose of this dissertation was to investigate why the organization like XYZ UK Limited not able to continue their online businesses and what new techniques and best practices are in use by others to run their online businesses. What are the techniques that were appropriate for identity management and how well the organization (XYZ UK limited) complies with these techniques? The quantitative data was collected through an online questionnaire addressed to approximately 50 business executives, partners, experts and consumers. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES This research emphasizes the issues in private company (XYZ-UK Limited) regarding the risk and impact of identity theft that company had faced while doing online business and also the problems they had been through in transactions, made on the Internet. I will also put forward what new techniques should be adopted to increase more business and customers satisfaction. To see companies involved in e-business and how to overcome their problems. Adopt new techniques and ideas to have secure online business. Following are research objectives: To analyze, the affect of cyber crime on businesses and with its consequences on customer relationship. Determine the protection level that the company has provided through its security Policy to maintain the privacy of their customers sensitive information and determine its compliance with industry best practices. To identify the reasons that results for the company in suffering loses and losing business opportunities and determining their plan to overcome those constraints. Analyzing new strategies acquired by the company to achieve the level of protection and review their effectiveness in accordance with existing practices. To provide opinion whether new methods for safe on-line business ensure customers satisfaction or need of improvement. Organization of Research This research is organized as follows. The first chapter, as noted, introduces the research and objectives. The second chapter provides the brief overview of literature on identity theft in e-commerce and describes the critical background identity theft associated with e-commerce., and third Chapter consists of Methodology. Chapter 4 Analysis of the findings of Survey as well as content analysis to assess the scale of the effect of these factors on e-commerce success as supposed. Chapter 5 is a policy document can be used as best practices. CHAPTER2 Literature Review â€Å"Whats my ROI on e-commerce? Are you crazy? This is Columbus in the new world. What was his ROI?† (Andy Grove, chairman of Intel) CHAPTER TWO Literature Review DEFINITION OF E-COMMERCE Various definitions of e-commerce are there; the one given at this point is an attempt to relate to this research. â€Å"Electronic commerce is about doing business electronically. It is based on the electronic processing and transmission of data, including text, sound and video. It encompasses many diverse activities including electronic trading of goods and services, online delivery of digital content, electronic fund transfers, electronic share trading, electronic bills of lading, commercial auctions, collaborative design and engineering, online products (e.g. consumer goods, specialized medical equipment) and services (e.g. information services, financial and legal services); traditional activities (e.g. healthcare, education) and new activities (e.g. virtual malls).† (EC document, 1997) While, defining the term â€Å"Electronic Commerce† ranges from broad (EITO) to the very narrow (OECD), basically they are equivalent. A patent description of transactions rather than the scope of activities are there. A hurdle in drafting a precise definition of e-commerce is the continuing evolution of science and technology and its impact on ever-changing environment. (Civil Jurisdiction, 2002) Identity theft may be broadly defined as the unlawful acquirement or the use of any aspect of an individuals personal information for committing some form of criminal activity (Hoar, 2001; LoPucki, 201; Slosarik 2002). This definition is proposed to cover any type of crime that falsely uses a victims name, home address, bank account, credit / debit card number, national insurance number, date of birth, etc. (Federal trade commission, 2004) Some authors and authorities have obviously been some hard work on the result of identity theft to those whom their identity had been stolen; they were trying to see how identity theft can be avoided and possible ways to avoid ones identity being stolen by the criminal specially in online business and to find what identity theft in e-commerce is about. For instance, Mehdi Khosrowpour (2002) defines â€Å"identity theft is a form of hacking which results in possession of personal data and information by the hackers to masquerade as the true identity owners for future use†. IMPACT OF CYBER CRIMES ON BUSINESS E-commerce oriented Businesses are often having a fear that exposing security weakness gives the opportunity to hackers to penetrate into business sensitive information and do the damage. These concerns have shown to have negative impact on consumer attitudes toward using the Internet to make purchases. (Koufaris, 2002) The outcome is failure in doing business online. The losses can be divided into â€Å"direct† and â€Å"indirect losses†. The complete impact of identity theft is not completely understood so far, but latest researches importance the fast development and major costs linked with the offense have discussed and looking to solve it. Near the beginning debate around identity theft relied on subjective proof which is mainly reported by the popular press Identity theft is in many ways a more harmful act that can have continuous effects on major financial effect on merchants as well as on customers. Recent studies have found that identity theft victims often suffer the same emotional consequences as victims of other crimes. The crime of identity theft can be difficult to track because it takes many forms and is used to facilitate other crimes, such as credit card fraud, immigration fraud, Internet scams, and terrorism. Identity fraud arises when someone takes over fictitious name or adopts the name of another person with or without their consent Rt Hon David Blunkett MP (2002) DIRECT LOSSES Direct losses can be defined as losses in terms of monetary value. Reflection of such costs can be seen as incorporated costs of the market incentives faced by such parties addressing the issue. Surveys conducted by experts show the range of financial losses that the businesses have suffered. Identity theft losses to companies are over two times greater whereas to consumers three times that are linked with conventional payment deception. Analysis of recent consumer surveys has suggested that while users may view the internet as a marketing channel valued for its convenience and ease of use for shopping, security and privacy issues are very influential on decisions to buy online†. (Smith and Rupp, 2002a, b) In e-businesses associated fraud losses are also normally charged back to merchants. From the perspective of the credit card issuer, the cost of identity theft for illegally purchased products is most likely to be claimed against the applicable retailers by the credit card issuer. Internet merchants fraud-related costs are high, and when those costs are combined with growing consumer fears of identity theft it results in significant damage to the business. For consumers, the main impact of identity theft is the unauthorized use of their credit card accounts that could make them suffer financial losses. Corporate identity theft provides perpetrators to conduct industrial sabotage resulting in possible fines to businesses for breach of regulatory rules. Another form of direct losses is the loss of data, according to studies data breaches cost companies losses in terms of administrative performance, management defections and loss of critical and sensitive business data as well as customer data. It will also allow consumers to sue if their personal information is improperly taken from online transactions (Tillman, 2002). It also results in cost overheads for companies to implement preventive measures and techniques. Additionally there will be costs for the recovery of loss-data. It also impacts the company to continue its business processes, above all companies may go out of business because of major data-loss. One more category of direct loss is the loss of equipments and products, since it is very easy for id theft criminal to divert the delivery or shipment of goods by having unauthorized access to the place where it is convenient to pick it up. INDIRECT LOSSES There could be many indirect losses because of identity theft. For example, the time and resources spent on corrective action after the identities and personal information have compromised. However, the ultimate indirect loss, in this regard is, the loss of goodwill, company reputation, customer confidence and relationship with trading partners. Reputation is one of trustworthy behaviour and plays an important part in determining the willingness of others to enter into an exchange with a given actor (Grabner-Kraeuter, 2002, p. 48). It has also estimated that businesses fear to accept large number of orders because of their susceptibility, especially they turn away overseas transactions and hence get to lose business. The combination of financial losses coupled with reputation and customer trust provide great level of damage to the e-businesses. In terms of reputation, it can said that any e-commerce scandal will become headline of news immediately and the media is always curious about such scandals, thus the publicity of any such incident ruins the company reputation largely. Consumers always worry about their privacy. Many researchers have found that, a majority of internet users worry about spreading of personal data, because the person stealing someones data can use it to misuse the bank accounts, conduct a crime using the details of somebody else, can easily get away from worst situations or can even cross countries borders using fake identities, all of the above can create problem for the person whose identity has been used for all such crimes. Liability issues are always in concern when companies are dealing with trading partners or doing the business within a country having strict laws for companies to be found liable if they do not protect their own and critical information of others. Theft of corporate identities may adversely affect morale of third party employees as well as the competitive advantages that a company may have with its trading partners. Using a network perspective, concerning interrelationships between people and organizations, economic relationships between organizations embedded in networks of social relationships (Galaskiewicz, 1985; Granovetter, 1985; Uzzi, 1997). Improper handling of information can also take companies to court where they can held accountable for negligence and can face severe fines including imprisonments. Another aspect of indirect loss is the damage to the credit history of both customers and businesses. Businesses will no longer be able to obtain business loans to boost their business and also cannot obtain insurance benefits from insurance companies. Similar things happens to customers, once their history has been marked susceptible they cannot obtain bank loans, credit cards, health claims and even a better carrier. In summary, the above psychoanalysis shows a picture what an individual or a business might suffer from if cyber criminals steal their identities. E-commerce and Main Categories Nowadays businesses are using heterogeneous computer environments to integrate their proprietary systems with the external world. Database servers and application servers supported with middleware to interface with online connections; these include HR management, supply chain management and customer relationship management. Through electronic networks where the purpose is to achieve businesses, E-Commerce can be separated into major categories: Business-to-Business (B-TO-B) relationship Business-to-Customer (B-TO-C) relationship Business-to-Government (B-TO-G) relationship Consumer-to-Consumer (C-TO-C) relationship Mobile Commerce (m-commerce) relationship The two core categories are Business to Business and Business to Customer. Business to Customer (B-TO-C) B-TO-C e-commerce is a part of the business, which deals with commercial activities between companies and customers. Companies can easily make their strategies according to the needs and requirements of customers, based on analysis of customers statistics in this model, these statistics can be based on marketing, sales and customer service components (e.g. ordering, online assisting, delivering and customers interaction etc.). E-tailing The most common form of business-to-consumer (B2C) transaction is E-tailing. (Electronic retailing) It is the selling of sellable merchandise over the Internet. E-Tailing: Revolutionary Trends in E-Business Recent studies have found that 1997 was the first big year for e-tailing. Dell Computers claimed as they processed a multimillion dollar orders taken through their Web site. In 1996, was the success for Amazon.com welcomed Noble Barnes to launch its E-business site whereas, Commerce Net/Nielsen Media disclosed that 10 million customers had completed purchases on-line. A systematic approach in this regard, needs a good combination of business strategies and dynamic networks. â€Å"The total of these structures is called a dynamic strategic network† (Dyke, 1998). One of the best examples of B-to-C e-commerce is Amazon.com, an online bookstore that launched its site in 1995. The benefits of B-TO-C e-commerce includes that it provides instantaneous communication between consumer and trader as well as products and services can be access globally and transactions happens in real time, whereas the risk includes, the confidentiality and privacy of customers information. Business-to-business (B2B) and business-to-customer (B2C) transactions are used in e-commerce and is a type of online shopping. Advantages of B2C e-commerce; The subsequent advantages are: Shopping can be quicker and expedient. Prices and Offers can alter immediately. The website can be incorporated with Call centers directly. The buying experience will be improved by Broadband communications. Background of E-Shopping E-Shopping was in

Albert Einsteins Theory of Special Relativity Essay -- Science Physic

Albert Einstein's Theory of Special Relativity The theory of Special Relativity, written by Albert Einstein in 1905, describes the laws of motion at velocities close to and at the speed of light. It was written to make the laws of motion consistent with the laws of electromagnetism. Special relativity makes two postulates: the laws of physics are the same for all non-accelerating observers and the speed of light in a vacuum is constant, regardless of motion. One of the consequences of these postulates is that clocks run slower to an observer in motion, or time slows down. Special relativity also states that objects at high speeds always appear shorter in the direction of motion than they do at rest. However, length measurements transverse to the direction of motion are unaffected. Velocity addition is different for special relativity than for classical mechanics because according to special relativity, nothing can travel faster than the speed of light. Also, in order to retain the conservation of momentum as a general la w consistent with Einstein's first postulate, a new definition of momentum must be used at relativistic velocities. The twin paradox is the famous example that uses time dilation and length contraction. Special relativity is not contradictory with classical mechanics because at low speeds, all of the laws of special relativity reduce to the laws of classical mechanics. In 1905, Albert Einstein wrote his paper on the special theory of relativity (Prosper). This theory has the reputation as being so exotic that few people can understand it. On the contrary, special relativity is simply a system of kinematics and dynamics, based on a set of postulates that is different from those of classical mec... ...pecial relativity has caused profound changes in the way we view our universe at its most fundamental level. The theory has had an effect on many areas of science, especially physics. Even though many people did not think that special relativity was anything more than a theoretical idea, it has been tested numerous times. In every case, the predictions of special relativity are upheld. Special relativity is a cornerstone upon which modern physics has been built, and it is one of the greatest discoveries of the twentieth century. References Einstein, Albert. Relativity: The Special and General Theory. Three Rivers Press, New York, New York. 1961. Krane, Kenneth. Modern Physics, Second Edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1996. Prosper, H. Introduction to Relativity: Special Relativity. http://www.physics.edu/users/ProsperH/AST3033/relativity.htm

Although the authors us fictitious characters and events, novels are :: English Literature

Although the authors us fictitious characters and events, novels are often surprisingly accurate portraits of their time Although the authors us fictitious characters and events, novels are often surprisingly accurate portraits of their time. To what extent do you think The Great Gatsby is a novel of this type? The Great Gatsby, written in the early 1920’s, by F. Scott Fitzgerald portrays the type of high class life the rich were living during this time. Extravagance was the key to everything, parties, drinking, cars, relationships, and life. Everybody seemed to have money. This time was known as â€Å"The Roaring 20’s†, or â€Å"The Golden 20’s.† We see this type of culture in its extremity in The Great Gatsby. We can also assume that it was this type of life that Fitzgerald himself led. He was born into a fairly well-to-do family. In 1896 he attended, but never graduated from, Princeton University. It was here he mingled with the moneyed classes from the Eastern Seaboard who created an obsession for the rest of his life. In 1917 he was drafted into the army, but he never saw active service abroad. He married the beautiful Zelda Sayre and together they embarked on a rich life of endless parties. Dividing their time between America and fashionable resorts in Europe, the Fitzgerald’s’ became as famous for their lifestyle as for the novels he wrote. â€Å"Sometimes I don't know whether Zelda and I are real or whether we are characters in one of my novels†, which he wrote to pay for his extravagant lifestyle. We can see just how similar Gatsby and Fitzgerald are. Gatsby, unlike Fitzgerald was born into a fairly poor family, but soon met Dan Cody and Daisy, who, both very rich led him to the obsession to also become rich. I believe it was mainly the influence of daisy for this. He was desperately in love with her, but stood no chance all the while he had no money. †She only married you because I was poor and she was tired of waiting for me.† Also like Fitzgerald, Gatsby went to University and never finished. â€Å"It was in nineteen – nineteen, I only stayed five months. That’s why I can’t really call myself an Oxford man.† Gatsby was also in the army during the war, â€Å"Why yes, I was in the twenty – eighth infantry.† The only major difference we can see between the two men is that Gatsby never married the â€Å"beautiful† Daisy. He never made it to marriage, this could possibly be because he never had money, unlike Fitzgerald, who made his money, and then met Zelda.

Hedda Gabler Essay -- essays research papers

Hedda Gabler   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Hedda Gabler is a more modern tragic figure. Like Job, she has gone through pain and suffering. Just as many of the Greek tragic figures and Job confront their Gods, Hedda Gabler confronts the controlling forces in her life. She needs control and in order for her to gain control over her life she commits suicide and does it beautifully to fulfill her romantic quest. It is implied, though never clearly stated, that Hedda grew up without a female influence. Her father who was a General raised her around guns. She was socialized to be more violent than lady-like. Hedda, as all women in her time, was restricted by society. She married Tesman because that was expected of her. She had no way of surviving on her own. She had courted Lovborg before meeting Tesman. She called herself a coward because she denied Lovborg and gave in to the influence of society. When she lost Lovborg, she loss purpose, and meaning and that created her boredom. Page 2 Her marriage to Tesman was not what she wanted for herself. She wanted much more. Hedda did not want the restraints put on her by society. She thought she could live through Tesman. To Hedda, he was boring and too caught up in his work she wanted him to join politics because that was what she wanted to do but was forbidden because she was a woman. He was not rich enough to do so and that destroyed her dream. Hedda would not settle for living homebound. Hedda was Lovborg's inspiration in one ...

Ophelia and Polonius Essay -- Shakespeare Hamlet

Ophelia and Polonius   Ã‚  Ã‚   In this essay I will attempt to compare and contrast the relationship of Ophelia and Polonius in Shakespeare's play Hamlet, with the relationship my father and I have. I will analyze the similarities and differences between their relationship and ours to show how even though the play takes place in a much different time period, we still have things in common. First, I will characterize the relationship I have with my father. Next, I plan to define the relationship Ophelia has with her father Polonius in the story of Hamlet. Finally, I will discuss how the two relationships relate to one another.    Since I was young my father and I have had a fairly close relationship. As I have grown up he has continuously instilled important values in my life and continues to nurture my environment and support a productive lifestyle. In my teenage years we have however somewhat grown apart. We still talk but it has become harder to see eye to eye on more and more issues. The way our relationship goes is as follows. There will be a disagreement, we...